Faculty Publications
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Item Cluster Formation for Underwater Routing in UnetStack3(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2025) Nazareth, P.; Chandavarkar, B.R.; Das, A.P.Underwater Acoustics Sensor Networks (UASNs) are utilized in a range of underwater applications, including sea habitat monitoring, offshore research, and mineral exploration. Due to the underwater current, low bandwidth, high water pressure, fluctuations in link quality between nodes, propagation latency, and error probability, underwater communication is challenging. Because of these difficulties, data transmission in UASNs is unreliable during routing. One strategy to improve routing speed is to use an opportunistic routing technique. The sender will transmit the data to the set of neighbours in opportunistic routing such that at least one neighbour can receive and forward the data. The main processes in opportunistic routing include evaluating the adjacent nodes, picking the group of neighbours, and coordinating among the selected nodes to transfer the received data. The optimum next-hops during routing are picked. The numerous properties of neighbouring nodes are analysed and the neighbouring nodes are used for forming clusters that are utilised to choose the best next-hops. In this paper, a novel approach for sensor node clustering technique for UASNs is proposed. Here, it is assumed that the neighbours of a sender node are already ranked. A suitable algorithm like TOPSIS (Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) is employed to search for the best next-hops and determines a set of candidates to be considered for cluster formation. The protocol has been implemented and simulated in UnetStack3, an agent-based network stack for underwater communication. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2025.Item E-Var: Enhanced void avoidance routing algorithm for underwater acoustic sensor networks(Institution of Engineering and Technology kvukmirovic@theiet.org, 2019) Nazareth, P.; Chandavarkar, B.R.Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) have gained attention among researchers due to its various aquatic applications. On the other hand, UASNs encounter many research challenges due to its inherent characteristics such as high propagation delay, limited bandwidth, high bit-error-rate, limited energy, and communication void during routing. These limitations severely affect the performance of delay-sensitive and reliable applications of UASNs. The primary objective of this study is to address the communication void during routing. Various methods, such as backward–forwarding, passive participation, flooding, heuristic, and transmission power adjustments, are proposed to address the communication void during routing. The major drawbacks of these methods are void as a part of routing, loops, unreachable data to the sink, and more number of transmission of duplicate packets. This study proposes a void avoidance routing algorithm referred to as enhanced-void avoidance routing (E-VAR) using an idea of void awareness among the nodes. The E-VAR inhibits the participation of void in routing, thereby resulting in better performance in comparison with the state-of-the-art. Through MATLAB simulations, E-VAR is compared with interference-aware routing and state-of-the-art backward–forwarding, in terms of the number of nodes reachable and unreachable due to looping to the sink, average hop-count, and distance. © The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2019.Item Location-Free Void Avoidance Routing Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks(Springer, 2022) Nazareth, P.; Chandavarkar, B.R.The field of Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) is one of the emerging areas of communication due to the number of marine applications. However, UASNs face several fundamental challenges like node movement, high propagation delay, low throughput, high bit-error-rate, low bandwidth, and void-node during communication. Void-node during routing is one of the major problems during routing, which causes high end-to-end delay to route the packets to the sink. The void-node is a fundamental challenge in UASNs and directly influences the UASNs in terms of the end-to-end delay, packet loss, and reliability of the UASNs. The main objective of this paper is to design a void-aware routing protocol referred to as Location-Free Void Avoidance Routing (LFVAR) protocol. It develops void-awareness among nodes in the UASNs and prevents forwarding of the packets to void and trap nodes. Further, LFVAR capable of selecting the efficient void-recovery path for the void-nodes present in the UASNs. Thus, it aims at reducing the end-to-end delay, lower energy consumption, higher packet delivery ratio, and increasing throughput during routing. The LFVAR protocol is implemented in UnetStack and further compared with the state-of-the-art Interference-aware routing (Intar) protocol. The simulation result shows that the packets in LFVAR reach the sink 32.32 % faster, consumes 20.54 % lower energy, and 9.8 % higher packet delivery ratio than Intar. © 2021, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.Item Hop-based void avoidance routing protocol for underwater acoustic sensor networks(Inderscience Publishers, 2023) Nazareth, P.; Chandavarkar, B.R.More than 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water. There is a need to explore the underwater in various applications like disaster detection, environmental monitoring, resource detection, etc. Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) are the prominent technology used in exploring underwater. UASNs faces challenges such as energy constraint on networks, increased routing complexity due to dynamic network topology, and void node results in increased complexity. The void node poses a major challenge in the routing of UASNs. A void node not being handled properly leads to a lower packet delivery ratio (PDR), higher end-to-end delay. This paper proposes a hop-based void avoidance routing (HVAR) protocol, which is a sender-based, void-avoidance routing protocol. HVAR efficiently distributes void node information in the networks and avoids data transmission to such nodes in the network. HVAR is implemented using UnetStack, and its performance is compared with the state-of-the-art Interference-aware routing (Intar) in terms of end-to-end delay, PDR, energy consumption, and throughput. © © 2023 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.Item Cluster-Based Multi-attribute Routing Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks(Springer, 2024) Nazareth, P.; Chandavarkar, B.R.Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks play a significant role in various underwater applications. There are several challenges in underwater communications like high bit-error-rate, low bandwidth, high energy consumption, void-node during routing, etc. Handling void-node during routing is a major challenge in underwater routing. There are well-known void-handling protocols like Energy-efficient Void-Aware Geographic Routing protocol, HydroCast, etc. However, these routing protocols require all neighboring nodes must be a part of the cluster which increases the overhead on clustering, or void-node has a part of the routing. This paper proposes an underwater routing protocol referred to as Cluster-based Multi-Attribute Routing (CMAR) to overcome these issues. It is a sender-based, opportunistic underwater routing protocol. CMAR uses the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution to evaluate the suitability of the neighboring nodes and the basis for clustering process initialization. Through MATLAB simulations, the performance of the CMAR is compared with HydroCast in terms of the number of nodes selected in the forwarding set, number of clusters formed, number of times void-node becomes part of routing and transmission reliability. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2024.