Journal Articles
Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://idr.nitk.ac.in/handle/123456789/19884
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Item Interoperable permissioned-blockchain with sustainable performance(MDPI, 2021) Punathumkandi, S.; Sundaram, V.M.; Prabhavathy, P.Bitcoin is an innovative and path-breaking technology that has influenced numerous industries across the globe. It is a form of digital currency (cryptocurrency) that can be used for trading and has the potential to replace fiat money, where the underlying infrastructure is called Blockchain. The Blockchain is an open ledger that provides decentralization, transparency, immutability, and confidentiality. Blockchain can be used in enormous applications, such as healthcare, logistics, supply chain management, the IoT, and so forth. Most of the industrial applications rely on the permissioned blockchain. However, the permissioned blockchain fails in some aspects, such as interoperability among different platforms. This paper suggests a sustainable system to solve the interoperability issue of the permissioned blockchain by designing a new infrastructure. This work has been tested in ethereum and hyperledger frameworks, which obtained a success rate of 100 percent. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.Item Spatiotemporal Assessment of Satellite Image Time Series for Land Cover Classification Using Deep Learning Techniques: A Case Study of Reunion Island, France(MDPI, 2022) Navnath, N.N.; Chandrasekaran, K.; Stateczny, A.; Sundaram, V.M.; Prabhavathy, P.Current Earth observation systems generate massive amounts of satellite image time series to keep track of geographical areas over time to monitor and identify environmental and climate change. Efficiently analyzing such data remains an unresolved issue in remote sensing. In classifying land cover, utilizing SITS rather than one image might benefit differentiating across classes because of their varied temporal patterns. The aim was to forecast the land cover class of a group of pixels as a multi-class single-label classification problem given their time series gathered using satellite images. In this article, we exploit SITS to assess the capability of several spatial and temporal deep learning models with the proposed architecture. The models implemented are the bidirectional gated recurrent unit (GRU), temporal convolutional neural networks (TCNN), GRU + TCNN, attention on TCNN, and attention of GRU + TCNN. The proposed architecture integrates univariate, multivariate, and pixel coordinates for the Reunion Island’s landcover classification (LCC). the evaluation of the proposed architecture with deep neural networks on the test dataset determined that blending univariate and multivariate with a recurrent neural network and pixel coordinates achieved increased accuracy with higher F1 scores for each class label. The results suggest that the models also performed exceptionally well when executed in a partitioned manner for the LCC task compared to the temporal models. This study demonstrates that using deep learning approaches paired with spatiotemporal SITS data addresses the difficult task of cost-effectively classifying land cover, contributing to a sustainable environment. © 2022 by the authors.Item Dual attention guided deep encoder-decoder network for change analysis in land use/land cover for Dakshina Kannada District, Karnataka, India(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2023) Naik, N.; Chandrasekaran, K.; Sundaram, V.M.; Prabhavathy, P.The Earth is frequently changed by natural occurrences and human actions that have threatened our environment to a certain extent. Therefore, accurate and timely monitoring of transformations at the surface of the Earth is crucial for precisely facing their harmful effects and consequences. This paper aims to perform a change detection (CD) analysis and assessment of the Dakshina Kannada region, being one of the coastal districts of Karnataka, India. The spatial and temporal variations in land use and land cover (LULC) are being monitored and examined from the data received as LULC maps from the National Remote Sensing Agency, Indian Space Research Organization, India. The time-series data from advanced wide-field sensor (AWiFS) Resourcesat2 satellite as LULC maps (1:250k) are analyzed using a deep learning approach with an encoder–decoder architecture with dual-attention modules for the change analysis. The model provides an overall accuracy and meanIOU(intersection over union) of 94.11% and 74.1%. The LULC maps from 2005 to 2018 (13 years) are utilized to decide the variations in the LULC, including urban development, agricultural variations, vegetation dynamics, forest areas, barren land, littoral swamp, and water bodies, current fallow, etc. The multiclass area-wise changes in terms of percentage show a decline in most LULC classes, which raises a point of concern for the environmental safety of the considered area, which is highly exposed to coastal flooding due to increased urbanization. © 2022, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.Item Robust Graph Neural-Network-Based Encoder for Node and Edge Deep Anomaly Detection on Attributed Networks †(MDPI, 2023) Daniel, G.V.; Chandrasekaran, K.; Sundaram, V.; Prabhavathy, P.The task of identifying anomalous users on attributed social networks requires the detection of users whose profile attributes and network structure significantly differ from those of the majority of the reference profiles. GNN-based models are well-suited for addressing the challenge of integrating network structure and node attributes into the learning process because they can efficiently incorporate demographic data, activity patterns, and other relevant information. Aggregate operations, such as sum or mean pooling, are utilized by Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) to combine the representations of neighboring nodes within a graph. However, these aggregate operations can cause problems in detecting anomalous nodes. There are two main issues to consider when utilizing aggregate operations in GNNs. Firstly, the presence of anomalous neighboring nodes may affect the representation of normal nodes, leading to false positives. Secondly, anomalous nodes may be overlooked as their representation is flattened during the aggregate operation, leading to false negatives. The proposed approach, AnomEn, is a robust graph neural network developed for anomaly detection. It addresses the challenges of false positives and false negatives using a weighted aggregate mechanism. This mechanism is designed to differentiate between a node’s own features and the features of its neighbors by placing greater emphasis on a node’s own features and less emphasis on its neighbors’ features. The system can preserve the node’s original characteristics, whether the node is normal or anomalous. This work proposes not only a robust graph neural network, namely, AnomEn, but also specific anomaly detection structures for nodes and edges. The proposed AnomEn method serves as the encoder in the node and edge anomaly detection architectures and was tested on multiple datasets. Experiments were conducted to validate the effectiveness of the proposed method as a graph neural network encoder. The findings demonstrated the robustness of the proposed method in detecting anomalies. The proposed method outperforms other existing methods in node anomaly detection tasks by 5.63% and edge anomaly detection tasks by 7.87%. © 2023 by the authors.Item Spatio-temporal analysis of land use/land cover change detection in small regions using self-supervised lightweight deep learning(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2023) Naik, N.; Chandrasekaran, K.; Sundaram, V.; Prabhavathy, P.Change detection (CD) has sparked a lot of scientific interest in recent decades as one of the core concerns in Earth observation. The enhancement of the CD source data with the availability of multitemporal images with varying resolutions provides ample change indicators due to the rapid improvement of satellite sensors. However, precisely detecting real changed locations continues to be a complicated task. CD from remote sensing images (RSI) becomes challenging when the labeled data for supervised learning is unavailable. This article proposes a novel CD framework using a self-supervised learning (SSL) approach to overcome these limitations. First, the superpixel segmentation method of simple linear iterative clustering (SLIC) using a structural similarity index is incorporated to produce a difference image (DI). The change features are extracted to represent the difference information using spatial features between the corresponding superpixels. Second, a parallel clustering algorithm called fuzzy C-means (FCM) separates the DI into three clusters of changed, unchanged, and intermediate classes. The image patches of changed, unchanged and intermediate classes are constructed as training and testing samples. A lightweight deep convolutional neural network (LWDCNN) is trained with the training samples to detect the semantic difference and classify the testing samples into the changed or unchanged class. Finally, merging intermediate and change class labels generates a robust and high-contrast CD map. Numerical experiments were performed on two small regions like the Alappuzha, Kerala, India, and Paris building dataset to demonstrate the usefulness of the proposed approach, achieving an overall accuracy of 98.28% and 96.43% for determining changes effectively. © 2023, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.Item Assessment of land use and land cover change detection and prediction using deep learning techniques for the southwestern coastal region, Goa, India(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2024) Naik, N.; Chandrasekaran, K.; Sundaram, V.; Prabhavathy, P.Understanding the connections between human activities and the natural environment depends heavily on information about land use and land cover (LULC) in the form of accurate LULC maps. Environmental monitoring using deep learning (DL) is rapidly growing to preserve a sustainable environment in the long term. For establishing effective policies, regulations, and implementation, DL can be a valuable tool for assessing environmental conditions and natural resources that will positively impact the ecosystem. This paper presents the assessment of land use and land cover change detection (LULCCD) and prediction using DL techniques for the southwestern coastal region, Goa, also known as the tourist destination of India. It consists of three components: (i) change detection (CD), (ii) quantification of LULC changes, and (iii) prediction. A new CD assessment framework, Spatio-Temporal Encoder-Decoder Self Attention Network (STEDSAN), is proposed for the LULCCD process. A dual branch encoder-decoder network is constructed using strided convolution with downsampling for the encoder and transpose convolution with upsampling for the decoder to assess the bitemporal images spatially. The self-attention (SA) mechanism captures the complex global spatial-temporal (ST) interactions between individual pixels over space-time to produce more distinct features. Each branch accepts the LULC map of 2 years as one of its inputs to determine binary and multiclass changes among the bitemporal images. The STEDSAN model determines the patterns, trends, and conversion from one LULC type to another for the assessment period from 2005 to 2018. The binary change maps were also compared with the existing state of the art (SOTA) CD methods, with STEDSAN having an overall accuracy of 94.93%. The prediction was made using an recurrent neural network (RNN) known as long short term memory network (LSTM) for the year 2025. Experiments were conducted to determine area-wise changes in several LULC classes, such as built-up (BU), crops (kharif crop (KC), rabi crop (RC), zaid crop (ZC), double/triple (D/T C)), current fallow (CF), plantation (PL), forests (evergreen forest (EF), deciduous forest (DF), degraded/scurb forest (D/SF)), littoral swamp (LS), grassland (GL), wasteland (WL), waterbodies max (Wmx), and waterbodies min (Wmn). As per the analysis, over the period of 13 years, there has been a net increase in the amount of BU (1.25%), RC (1.17%), and D/TC(2.42%) and a net decrease in DF (3.29%) and WL(1.44%) being the most dominant classes being changed. These findings will offer a thorough description of identifying trends in coastal areas that may incorporate methodological hints for future studies. This study will also promote handling the spatial and temporal complexity of remotely sensed data employed in categorizing the coastal LULC of a heterogeneous landscape. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024.