Browsing by Author "Kolathayar, S."

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3D Finite Element Analysis of Anti-slide Pile Performance for Slope Stabilization
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2025) Jose, D.; Kolathayar, S.; Nayak, S.
The stability of the slope plays a significant role in the formation and development of landslides. Among numerous slope stabilizing techniques, the reinforcement using anti-slide piles is an efficacious method for mitigating slope failures. These piles are usually installed in a row with uniform spacing, which will anchor the unstable zone to the deeper stable strata, thus maintaining the stability of the slope. In this study numerical analysis of the pile reinforced was carried out using the finite element software PLAXIS 3D to appraise the performance of anti-slide piles for controlling landslides. The variation of the factor of safety with the pile position, pile spacing, pile length, and shape of the pile was identified based on the safety analysis using the strength reduction method. The anti-slide pile effectively stabilized the slope and enhanced the safety factor by 1.4 times. The fixity of the pile head influences the performance of anti-slide piles, and fixed-head piles excels than free-head piles. The optimum position for placing the pile was observed as the middle of the slope for fixed head piles and near the toe of the slope for free head piles. The optimum spacing between the piles is recommended to be five times the diameter of the pile. A critical pile length of 0.8 times the height of the slope is suggested for attaining the maximum factor of safety and effective anchoring, and square-shaped piles are recommended. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024.
A Study on Trenching Techniques for Vibration Isolation: An Overview
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2021) Bariker, P.; Kolathayar, S.
This paper presents a detailed review of past research studies on trenching techniques for vibration isolation. With rapid urbanization and fast-growing infrastructures in developing countries like India, it is very likely for many structures subject to vibrations from earthquakes, traffic movements, or machine vibrations. Though the trench technique for vibration screening is an established technique, there has been a lot of advancements in vibration screening in recent years. This paper presents an overview of the developments in trenching techniques for vibration screening from its inception to the latest advancements. The studies have been categorized into laboratory element/model tests, field tests, and numerical analyses. The review of studies highlights that the open trenches perform better isolation for shallow depths whereas the infilled trenches perform better than open trenches when the normalized depth of trench is deeper. Â© 2021, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
A Sustainable Approach to Turn Plastic Waste into Useful Construction Blocks
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH info@springer-sbm.com, 2021) Monish, K.; Jesuran, J.J.; Kolathayar, S.
The world economy is surging and newer technologies are evolving with the time. The construction sector is about to undergo a huge transformational change. The people of the world are looking forward to residing in houses made of sustainable materials. The people are concerned about increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The cement production is accompanied by huge greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, waste plastics are becoming a nightmare for the people residing in developed and underdeveloped countries, as the waste management becomes difficult in those places. This research discusses a potential solution to address the above-stated issues of concern, i.e., plastic waste into construction blocks with lower cost and rapid construction phases. A study was conducted to examine the effectiveness of using LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene), (major sources of waste and least recycled plastic) with waste materials like bottom ash, copper slag, and ceramic in different proportions to create blocks. This study compares the mechanical properties of different mix proportions of raw materials to find an optimum composition. This paper also investigates the pre-eminence of the newly developed composite block over the conventional brick in terms of economic viability, environmental sustainability, and construction superiority. Â© 2021, Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
A System Engineering Approach to Disaster Resilienceâ€”An Introduction
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2022) Ghosh, C.; Kolathayar, S.
In this dynamic earth, each and every place is affected from natural, technological, biological, environmental hazards and/or related impacts. Depending on the extent of resilience measures in place and socioeconomic status of the countries, their infrastructures and environmental sensitiveness, the damage, and loss patterns are exposed. So to ensure basic security and quality of life against all, impending hazards have been the key issues for the academia and industries vis-a-vis administrative setup. Therefore, disaster resilience has become a systemic challenge for the mankind, and eventually, responding to disasters has been into the mainframe of all concerned governance from the time that natural resources are being extracted and used for the exploiting more and more from the mother nature. But in recent times as we are making lots of infrastructural growth, it is more so critical with the onset of deadly infectious disease outbreaks, acts of terrorism, social unrest, and fluctuation in the share market leading to financial disasters. From perspective of system engineering approaches, this chapter explains various facets of disaster resilience paradigm with particular motivation to the infrastructure growth and sustenance. Additionally, a summary of the 38 selected papers categorized into six sub-themes about the necessary approaches to elevate resilience to disasters is presented. Â© 2022, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
An Analysis of Piled Slope with Single Row of Piles Using 2D Finite Element Analysis
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2024) Jose, D.; Kolathayar, S.; Nayak, S.
The increased frequency of landslides and the associated damages emphasize the need to develop novel techniques for landslide mitigation. Among numerous methods developed till today, an anti-slide pile is an effective tool for controlling slides in landslide-prone areas. The present study assesses the suitability of 2-D FE analysis using the strength reduction method for analyzing a slope stabilized with anti-slide piles. A detailed parametric study was carried out to explore the influence of the position and length of the pile on the factor of safety of pile-reinforced slopes, and the failure mechanism was studied in detail. Fixed head piles improved the safety factor compared to free head piles, and an improvement of 1.5 times was obtained compared with unreinforced slope. Piles located at the crest and toe of the slope were not significantly improving compared to other locations. For fixed head piles, the length of the pile does not affect the factor of safety, and for free head piles, the factor of safety improves with an increase in the length of the pile. For the slope considered in the study, the optimum position of the pile is between the crest and middle portion of the slope, and the optimum length is found to be 20Â m for free head piles and 10Â m for fixed head piles. The failure mechanism of the piled slope is also explained in detail for each case. Â© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024.
An Appraisal of the Mechanism and Research Development Status of Anti-slide Piles as Effective Technique for Landslide Risk Reduction
(Springer, 2024) Jose, D.; Kolathayar, S.; Nayak, S.
The increased frequency of landslides and associated devastations necessitates developing sustainable mitigation measures. The present paper aims to appraise the research developments in enhancing slope stability using anti-slide piles for landslide mitigation. The previous researchers made an immense effort to identify the soil–structure interaction of the anti-slide pile. The soil arching between the piles was identified as the soil–pile interaction mechanism. A detailed review of the soil arching between the piles is performed, and the observations are presented in detail. Recently, different sustainable methods for the analysis and design of anti-slide piles have been developed. An attempt was made to carry out a comprehensive review of the analysis methods and their critical features, and the observations are provided. The parameters affecting the performance of the anti-slide piles were identified, and the influence of those parameters on the behavior of piles is also discussed. Finally, the novel designs developed by researchers to overcome the limitations of conventional anti-slide piles and the utilization of sustainable materials as anti-slide piles were appreciated. The authors like to highlight that anti-slide piles are an effective solution for landslide risk reduction, and there is further scope for research in this field. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Indian Geotechnical Society 2024.
Analysis and Design of a Hybrid Reinforced Earth Retention System for Sustainable Slope Protection: A Case Study Using Limit Equilibrium and Finite Element Methods
(Springer, 2025) Menon, V.; Kolathayar, S.
This study proposes an innovative hybrid earth retention system to stabilize slopes for a road-widening project in Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka, India. The system combines soil nailing, geogrid reinforcement, geocell walls, and biotechnical stabilization—popular geotechnical techniques aligned with sustainable development goals. These methods were engineered synergistically to address the site-specific challenges of restoring a slope that experienced five major collapses during heavy rains, enabling both highway expansion and slope protection without disrupting traffic flow. Soil samples were collected, and laboratory tests were conducted to evaluate the engineering properties of the site soil. Boreholes were drilled at strategic locations and Standard Penetration Tests were performed. The analysis and design of the retention system employed both the Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) and the Finite Element Method (FEM), utilizing GEO5 and OptumG2 software, respectively. A comparative analysis of these methods is presented, along with a non-linear regression model to establish correlations for soil nail parameters derived from LEM analyses. The study demonstrates the successful integration of geocell walls with soil nailing and geogrid reinforcement to support an unprotected embankment. The findings include the site reconnaissance report, reclamation strategies, and a detailed discussion of LEM and FEM analysis results, establishing the robustness and sustainability of the proposed hybrid retention system. © The Institution of Engineers (India) 2025.
Applications of civil engineering in disaster risk reduction
(CRC Press, 2024) Menon, N.V.C.; Kolathayar, S.; Sreekeshava, K.S.
The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) observes that "disaster risk reduction (DRR) is aimed at preventing new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development". It further clarifies that "DRR is the policy objective of disaster risk management, and its goals and objectives are defined in disaster risk reduction strategies and plans". The compliance with multi-hazard resilient building codes, town planning bylaws, regulations against construction of buildings and structures in flood-prone areas and unstable slopes, etc. by practitioners of civil engineering, structural engineering and geo-technical engineering is essential for the structural integrity of the building stock to withstand disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, hurricanes, landslides, etc. The multi-hazard resilient construction of critical infrastructure such as dams, airports, flyovers, highways, power supply, water supply, telecommunications, etc. will strengthen the resilience of local communities which depend on uninterrupted service delivery of these facilities even when disasters strike neighbourhoods. Hospitals, schools, government offices, malls, etc. must function effectively to continue to deliver their services even during disasters without facing damage, destruction or collapse. The good practices of civil engineering as demonstrated by disaster-resilient structures in recent earthquakes must be studied to disseminate such lessons widely. Disaster risk reduction must also be introduced in the curriculum of institutions imparting education in civil engineering, structural engineering, geo-technical engineering, architecture, urban planning, etc. We need to ensure compliance with the National Building Code (NBC) and other codes for all new construction and critical infrastructure being built. We must also identify weak structures which are life threatening and carry out seismic strengthening and retrofitting to save lives in high-risk zones. The vulnerability of weak structures which collapse in earthquakes, landslides and cyclones make it necessary to undertake a structural safety audit of weak structures and socio-economic assessment as a follow-up to changes in a multi-hazard risk map. The implications need to be communicated to urban administrators rather than just mere incorporation into standard codes of practice. © 2025 selection and editorial matter, Sreevalsa Kolathayar, N Vinod Chandra Menon and Sreekeshava K S. All rights reserved.
Appraisal of Innovative Finned-Pile Foundations to Resist Lateral Loads
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2022) Bariker, P.; Kolathayar, S.
Multistoried buildings are subjected to a significant amount of lateral forces due to winds and earthquakes in onshore structures and forces due to water currents and heavy winds in offshore structures. Foundations supporting such structures as offshore wind turbines should resist extensive lateral forces and pullout forces. To sustain these loads, innovative types of pile foundations need to have experimented with in place of regular pile foundations for more economic and efficient performance. In this paper, an attempt is made to demonstrate the efficiency of adopting finned-piles concerning previous literature studies. This work highlights some of the experimental investigations, model studies, and numerical studies (FEM, FDM) adopted to find the usefulness of finned-piles in resisting the lateral loads. Some of the key-points of adopting such foundations are discussed. Finally, future untapped avenues explored on finned piles are also brought out in the paper. Â© 2022, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
Appraisal of Thanneermukkom bund as a coastal reservoir in Kuttanad, Kerala
(Taylor and Francis Ltd., 2021) Kolathayar, S.; Amala Krishnan, U.S.; Sitharam, T.G.
This paper presents an overview of Thanneermukkom bund with its implications on water security in the region as a freshwater reservoir in the southwest coast of India. The bund was constructed in 1974 to convert southern part of brackish Vembanad Lake into a freshwater reservoir to augment agricultural activities. This paper reviews past studies on the bund and highlights the fact that it is a coastal reservoir though the term coastal reservoir became popular only in the last two decades. The bund divides the Vembanad Lake into a freshwater lake in the south and brackish water lake fed by the ocean in the north. This paper reviews the issues and challenges related to the inefficient operation of the bund and presents possible solutions. The paper proposes to restore this unique coastal reservoir to ensure freshwater supply for drinking and irrigation in the low lands of Kuttanad. © 2021 IAHR and WCCE.
Behaviour of the Pavement Subgrade Reinforced with Coir Geocells Under Repeated Loads
(Springer, 2025) Raveendran, D.; George Paul, A.; Hassan Noorudheen, F.; Bilal, M.; Kolathayar, S.
This study investigates the performance of natural coir geocell–reinforced sandy subgrades through repeated plate loading tests. Key parameters were evaluated under simulated traffic loading, including load-settlement behaviour, elastic rebound, and cumulative permanent deformation (CPD). Coir geocell reinforcement reduced CPD by 42%, improved resilient modulus by nearly 67%, and achieved a traffic benefit ratio (TBR) of 23 at a rut depth of 33 mm. Mechanistic-empirical pavement analysis demonstrated a 40% reduction in base course thickness and a 22% reduction in overall granular layers for pavements designed for 10 million standard axles. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of three-dimensional coir geocells in improving subgrade resilience under repeated loading conditions. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2025.
Best Practices in Geotechnical and Pavement Engineeringâ€”An Introduction
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2024) Kolathayar, S.; Vinod Chandra Menon, N.; Sreekeshava, K.S.; Shekhawat, P.; Bhargavi, C.
In the times of mounting infrastructure demands driven by rapid population growth, the pivotal role of geotechnical investigation in assessing the suitability of construction sites, especially on soft, compressible ground, cannot be overstated. However, the necessity to adhere to packed construction schedules has increased the prevailing trend of rapid construction, often accompanied by significant ground settlements and lateral deformations, which necessitate complex solutions for stability. To transform these challenges into a dependable foundation for construction, various ground improvement techniques, encompassing both mechanical and chemical stabilization methods, must be applied. Importantly, these techniques must align with principles of sustainability, acknowledging the current climate change scenario. Furthermore, the pursuit of sustainable pavement construction, which holds on to the utilization of locally available materials, resilient enough to withstand diverse weather conditions, has risen to prominence. The adoption of stabilized pavement materials, typically integrated into base and sub-base courses, not only ensures longevity but also serves as a much needed measure to conserve increasingly scarce aggregates. This chapter provides glimpse into a comprehensive book volume, delving into the best practices in geotechnical and pavement engineering, comprising five distinct thematic clusters including soilâ€“foundation interaction, sustainable ground improvement techniques, the dynamics of geosynthetics within soil, advanced geophysics, innovative rock mechanics practices, and recent breakthroughs in pavement construction. These insights collectively underscore the need for sustainable and resilient infrastructure development, serving as a promising guide for the future. Â© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2024.
Challenges and opportunities for coastal reservoir development in India
(Elsevier, 2020) Sitharam, T.G.; Kolathayar, S.
In India, presently 320 million people remain in the water-starved parts of the country, and according to the United Nations, 840 million people are expected to be water-starved in India by 2050. Although there has been no significant change in India’s rainfall pattern, the number of areas under drought in India is increasing every year. Increase in population is one of the reasons for water scarcity, but inefficient management of the precipitation received stands as the major cause. Although extreme rainfall events are significantly increasing, there is a spatial nonuniformity in the rainfall events that occur. This makes it difficult to preplan large-scale water storage at different locations. Solution to India’s water problem lies in conserving the abundant monsoon water bounty by storing it in coastal reservoirs for future use. This paper focuses on the challenges and opportunities in India for storing river floodwaters in coastal reservoir. The paper also presents the concept of Sarovar Mala, a chain of coastal reservoirs, an innovative concept that has the potential to ensure water availability to India throughout the year. © 2020 Elsevier Inc.
City Resilience and Sustainable Infrastructureâ€”An Introduction
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2022) Pal, I.; Kolathayar, S.; Ganni, S.V.S.A.B.
Sustainability and resilience should be highest priorities in urban planning and city development to sustain life through the adverse effects of disasters. This chapter summarizes the contents of the book volume on City Resilience and Sustainable Infrastructure. The book discusses key topics such as resilient infrastructure in construction,Â innovative construction interventions,Â waste management and disaster risk reduction,Â urban development and sustainability, andÂ cross-cutting issues. Basic definitions and information on City Resilience and Sustainable Infrastructure are also included in the chapter. Â© 2022, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
Civil Engineering for Multi-hazard Risk Reduction-An Introduction
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2024) Sreekeshava, K.S.; Kolathayar, S.; Vinod Chandra Menon, N.; Bhargavi.C
The modern built environment faces diverse hazards, emphasizing the need for engineering practices prioritizing safety and resilience. This exploration delves into key aspects of civil engineering: Accessibility and Convenience, Geotechnical Engineering, Risk Analysis and Structural Analysis. It aims to provide a foundational understanding of multidisciplinary approaches used to mitigate risks in civil engineering. In the realm of Accessibility and Convenience, research explores alternative construction materials such as bamboo and innovative concrete formulations. Studies investigate the use of metakaolin, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, alkali activated concrete and coconut coir fibres to enhance durability and sustainability. Polyethylene glycol and chemical admixtures like red mud and silica fume are also examined for their impact on concrete properties. Geotechnical Engineering focuses on subsurface characteristics crucial for safety assessments. Soft computing techniques, including Group Method of Data Handling and Random Forests Classifier, are applied for slope stability analysis. Digital Image Correlation is employed to study soil displacement, while artificial intelligence models predict residual strength post liquefaction. Risk Analysis and Approaches cover climate-smart agriculture, floodplain mapping, solid waste management, and disaster resilience. Machine learning aids in land use classification, flood forecasting, earthquake prediction and identifying risk factors in road construction. The study also evaluates safety distances around gas and oil pipelines. Structural Analysis involves transient and modal analysis of structures under various loads. Contributions include crack propagation studies using digital image segmentation and the application of deep convolutional neural networks for surface crack detection. Building surface crack detection, construction sequence analysis and seismic studies on different building types are explored for structural integrity. The overarching theme underscores the interdisciplinary nature of civil engineering in addressing contemporary challenges. These include climate change impacts, disaster resilience, sustainable materials, and advanced technologies like IoT and AI. As civil engineering plays a pivotal role in developing hazard-resilient structures, the presented research contributes to the evolving landscape of risk reduction and safety enhancement in the built environment. Â© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024.
Civil engineering innovations for sustainable communities with net zero targets
(CRC Press, 2024) Kolathayar, S.; Menon, N.V.C.; Sreekeshava, K.S.
This volume on civil engineering innovations for sustainable communities with net zero targets aligns with the United Nations sustainable development goals in the context of civil engineering innovations. Major topics covered include hydrological alterations under climate change, smart water management, sustainable slope stability solutions, sustainable water management and climate-smart agriculture, conservation of wetlands, influence of phase change materials on thermal properties, building information modeling (BIM) for sustainable and affordable construction, and so forth. Features: â€¢ Combines concepts of civil engineering and sustainable development for future infrastructures â€¢ Includes hydrological alterations under climate change impacts â€¢ Covers prudent fiduciary discipline and effective cost management in the construction of buildings and critical infrastructure â€¢ Discusses BIM and cost-effective sustainable construction â€¢ Reviews hybrid artificial intelligence in civil infrastructure to attain SDGs #9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure) and #11 (sustainable cities and communities) This book is aimed at graduate students and researchers in civil engineering, sustainable development, risk management, GIS, and water. Â© 2025 selection and editorial matter, Sreevalsa Kolathayar, N Vinod Chandra Menon and Sreekeshava K S. All rights reserved.
Climate Change and Water Securityâ€”An Introduction
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2022) Natarajan, S.; Mondal, A.; Kolathayar, S.
This chapter presents basic concepts related to climate change and water security. Further, the chapter introduces the book volume on Climate Change and Water Security that includes various relevant topics for assessment of water quantity and quality in a changing environment, disaster risk, their possible future prognosis, as well as adaptation and protection measures. The focus is primarily on low-income countries such as India, Ethiopia, and Bangladesh, that may be particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. Â© 2022, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
Comparative Study for Performance of Soil Bed Reinforced with Jute and Sisal Geocells as Alternatives to HDPE Geocells
(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2020) Kolathayar, S.; Sowmya, S.; Priyanka, E.
This paper presents the performance of soil bed reinforced with jute and sisal geocells compared to HDPE geocells. The bearing pressure–settlement behaviour of the soil bed reinforced with natural geocells, soil bed reinforced with HDPE geocells and of unreinforced soil bed are discussed. The soil bed reinforced with jute cell and sisal cell showed a uniform increase in the settlement with increase in the applied pressure. The soil reinforced with HDPE geocell, however, showed a sudden rise in the settlement at higher pressure. Sisal mat used for developing the geocell was found to have greater tensile strength, followed by jute mat over HDPE material. Soil reinforced with sisal cells could bear larger stresses at lower strain compared to HDPE geocell. Analytical studies on jute and sisal geocells also were carried out considering the load transfer mechanism of geocell-reinforced soil. © 2020, Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
Comparative study on bearing capacity of bottom ash-stabilized soil mixed with natural and synthetic fibers
(ASTM International service@astm.org, 2020) Prasannan, S.; Kolathayar, S.; Sharma, A.K.
This article assesses the strength behavior of bottom ash (BA)-stabilized soil mixed with different fibers through a series of laboratory tests. Optimum BA and fiber percentage were obtained by small scale lab tests like compaction tests and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. From compaction tests with varying proportions of BA (10, 20, 30, and 40 %), the optimum BA content was found to be 30 %. With this optimum BA content, UCS tests were conducted on soil-BA mix with different fibers (coir, areca, sisal, and polyvinyl alcohol) at various percentages (0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 %) to find the optimum fiber content. A set of model footing tests were done to check the credibility of using fibers as a strengthening material beneath footing to upgrade the engineering properties of soil to make a reasonable subsoil for the foundation. A total of six model footing tests were performed on raw soil, on soil with optimum BA content, and on BA-stabilized soil mixed with different fibers in their optimum percentage (1.5 %). The bearing capacity of unstabilized unreinforced soil was found to increase significantly with the inclusion of fibers. © © 2020 by ASTM International
Debris flow in c-? soil: experimental analyses of pore pressure variations, crack percentage, digital image correlation (DIC) and particle image velocimetry (PIV)
(Springer, 2025) Menon, V.; Kolathayar, S.
Debris flow is the aftermath of soil losing its strength due to an increase in moisture content, which is initiated by Rainfall. This study investigates rainfall-induced debris flow in c-? soil predominantly found in the Western Ghats, India. The experimental setup utilised the tilting flume technique to simulate a 45-degree slope, replicating field conditions in terms of field density and natural moisture content. Excess pore water pressure (EPWP) variations were monitored during simulated rainfall events with an intensity of 30 mm/h. The findings indicate that the decrease in EPWP observed during the experiments Following a peak value and coincides with the initiation of soil movement, which occurs after the formation of shear cracks on the soil surface. To substantiate these observations, a masking algorithm based on OpenCV was employed to analyse fluctuations in crack percentage. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) and Digital Image Correlation (DIC) quantified particle velocity-displacement dynamics using high-definition camera imagery over time, which validated the initiation of landslides. It was observed that the rapid decline in EPWP serves as a critical precursor to potential landslide occurrences, underscoring the pivotal role of these metrics in early landslide prediction and risk assessment. This research contributes valuable insights into understanding landslide mechanics under controlled laboratory conditions, with implications for early landslide detection and hazard mitigation strategies in landslide-prone regions. © Indian Academy of Sciences 2025.