Browsing by Author "B, Raj Mohan"

Now showing 1 - 7 of 7

Biosynthesis of Lead Selenide (PbSe) Quantum Particles in Marine Fungus
(National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, 2016) Jacob, Jaya Mary; B, Raj Mohan
Lead selenide (PbSe) quantum particles (QPs), a typical semiconductor material of the IV–VI group are capturing the attention of material scientists for their shape controlled synthesis to utilize their excellent size tunable optical properties in diverse sectors. In order to address the disadvantages of the traditional chemical approach for PbSe QP synthesis, biosynthesis of these technologically relevant nano-fabrications was initiated in Pb and Se tolerant marine Aspergillus terreus. The formation of PbSe QPs were confirmed using TEM and SEM images that revealed the formation of rod like structures having an average diameter of 59 nm with an aspect ratio between 10 and 70. Detailed characterization to reveal the other structural and optical properties of the colloidal PbSe QPs were also carried out. The cyclic voltammogram of the biosynthesized PbSe QPs were characterized with five reaction peaks corresponding to the oxidation of PbSe, Se2O3 and Pb(OH)2 and the reduction of PbO2 and Pb(OH)2. Further, the statistical optimization of the process parameters during the biosynthesis of PbSe QPs for an enhanced fluorescence was carried out. It was observed that parameter optimization results in a florescence blue shift and a reduction in PbSe QP’s size to dimensions comparable to its excitonic Bohr radius (21nm). The fluorescence amenability of the biosynthesized PbSe QPs was utilized for the development of in-situ cadmium (II) sensing array. Initial experimental observations revealed sensitive and detectable quenching in fluorescence of the biogenic colloidal PbSe QPs in the presence of cadmium (II) ions in comparison to other tested metal ions. Subsequently advanced chromatographic and spectroscopic analyses confirmed the involvement of metal binding peptides namely metallothioneins, phytochelatins and superoxide dismutase that play a prominent role in the microbial metal detoxification system for the biosynthesis of PbSe QDs.
Biosynthesis of Zinc Sulphide (ZnS) nanoparticles from endophytic fungus Aspergillus flavus for degradation of organic pollutants
(National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, 2019) U, Priyanka.; B, Raj Mohan
Wastewater treatment is adopted from ages but the efficiency, time constraint, environmental friendliness and cost-effectiveness are the key aspects for applicability of any technique. Globally, large amounts of wastewater containing organic pollutants from various industries are being discharged into the environment. These emerging contaminants are persistently released into the oceanic environment majorly from manufacturing industries, consumers utility and effluent treatment plants. In this aspect naophotocatalysis with the amalgamation of a biological source has been explored where ZnS nanoparticles have been synthesized by endophytic fungal isolate Aspergillus flavus via a medicinal plant Nothapodytes foetida. Significant findings from the characterization study include the formation of spherical particles with an average diameter of about 18 nm by TEM and hydrodynamic diameter of 58.9 nm. Optical properties confirm the quantum confinement effect and the functional groups present on the surface of the nanoparticles, further the stability of nanoparticles is accessed by UV–Vis spectrometer, zeta potential and cyclic voltammeter. XRD reveals the phase structure and the crystallinity indicating the hexagonal phase of ZnS and diffraction peaks at 28.45o, 47.54o, 57o (2θ). The degradation efficiency of ZnS nanoparticles for methyl violet/ 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid / paracetamol are 87 % in 2 h, 33 % in 4.5 h and 51 % in 4 h respectively and the impact of various parameters on the photocatalytic activity is also investigated. The experimental results of COD and TOC are 78 % and 74 % for methyl violet; 55.5 % and 57.2 % for 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 47.6% and 44.5% for paracetamol respectively. Moreover, the plausible mechanism on the radical generation from ZnS nanoparticles upon irradiation for the degradation process is hypothesized based on the mass spectrum. In addition, the interaction between organic pollutants and ZnS nanoparticles is also elucidated based on AFM and fluorescence spectrum. Investigations reveal that the mechanism involved is extracellular based on micrographs/chromatogram and the peaks at 149, 301 and 579 (m/z) corresponds to proteins such as metallothioneins and phytochelatins. The formation of nanoparticles production is obtained at optimum inoculum volume of 10 % (w/v) at working volume of 1 L and agitation speed 80 rpm. XRD and TEM analysis confirmed the hexagonal phase of nanoparticles with the average diameter of 10-15 nm at an optimum concentration of 30 mM for 72 h.
Evaluation of Photothermal and Rb220 Dye Decolorization Potential of Biosynthesized Cobalt Oxide Nanoparticles from an Endophytic Fungus Aspergillus Nidulans
(National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, 2020) V. V, Ajuy Sundar; B, Raj Mohan
Endophytes are well known for producing biochemical molecules and bioactive metabolites. In addition, they have the capability to synthesize nanoparticles, whose properties are better than the chemical synthesized counterparts. Their potential of synthesizing nanoparticles in a greener way is relatively untapped. Nothapodytes foetida is a medicinal plant, which houses innumerable tolerant endophytic organisms. Various nanoparticles have been used for various applications. Metallic oxide nanoparticles have profound applications in electrochemical devices, supercapacitors, biosensors, and batteries. Though four fungi were isolated from Nothapodytes foetida, Aspergillus nidulans were found to be suitable for the synthesis of cobalt oxide nanoparticles, as it has proficient tolerance towards metal under study. The broth containing precursor solution and organism Aspergillus nidulans had changed from pink to orange indicating the formation of nanoparticles. Characterization by x-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDX) confirmed the formation of spinel cobalt oxide nanoparticles at an average size of 34 nm in spherical shape with sulfurbearing proteins acting as a capping agent for the synthesized nanoparticles. The study was a greener attempt to synthesize cobalt oxide nanoparticles using endophytic fungus. The extracellular synthesis makes the process simple. Dielectric constant and dielectric loss values of Co3O4 nanoparticles were measured at room temperature and frequency up to 1 MHz. They are plotted against frequency and these plots show dispersion at frequencies. Frequency dependence of the dielectric constant is found to increase with an increase in the frequency. Through Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis, phytochelatins are identified to be involved in the biosynthesis of Co3O4 nanoparticles. Solar energy absorption is a process of capturing solar energy radiated from natural sunlight and converted to some other useful forms by appropriate methods.In this way, a nanofluid based absorption system can provide a substitute for traditional solar collectors for the confinement of solar energy. This work proposes and validates a novel idea of using cobalt oxide nanofluids (Co3O4) to enhance solar thermal conversion efficiency. Experimental results reveal that Co3O4 nanofluids have a good specific absorption rate (SAR) and better photo-thermal conversion efficiency than water. Nanofluid exhibited a greater temperature gradient than pure water, which is desired. Thus the good absorption capability of Co3O4 nanofluids for solar energy indicated that it is suitable for direct absorption solar thermal energy systems. The photocatalytic activity of the biosynthesized cobalt oxide (Co3O4) nanoparticle is investigated using a textile dye Reactive Blue 220 (RB220) and decolorization (%) was monitored using UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The photocatalytic activity has been observed maximum at alkaline pH of 9, nanoparticle dosage of 250 mg/L, and reaction time of 270 min. In the presence of UV light irradiation, a maximum dye concentration of 10 mg/L was treated effectively using 150 mg/L nanoparticle, and 67% decolorization was achieved. Reaction kinetics has been analyzed and the reaction followed the pseudo kinetics model.
Hydrogel Based Wound Dressing Material Using Fish Based Collagen And Silver Nanowires as Antimicrobial Agent
(National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, 2022) Sharma, Diksha; JagadeeshBabu, P. E.; B, Raj Mohan
Chronic wounds fail to heal naturally and do not proceed through the sequential wound healing stages within an expected time frame. These wounds are characterized by extended inflammatory phase, excessive exudate and high alkaline pH (8.9), followed by elevated inflammatory cytokines, high levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and obstinate bacterial infections. This disrupts the natural healing process leading to impaired wound healing. The prime objective of this research work was to develop a pH- sensitive smart wound dressing material which can maintain an optimal exudate based on the wound pH, through which MMPs activity can be controlled to achieve better healing and also reduce bacterial infection. In this work, a pH-responsive hydrogel composed of poly(aspartic acid) (PAsp), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) along with collagen and silver nanowires (Ag NWs) was prepared via free radical polymerization method. Collagen used in the wound dressing material was successfully extracted from marine waste i.e., Sole fish skin that can enhance the wound healing process. The extraction process was optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with Box-Behnken Design (BBD) for achieving maximum yield. The optimal conditions to obtain highest collagen yield was determined to be, an acetic acid concentration of 0.54 M, NaCl concentration of 1.90 M, solvent/solid ratio of 8.97 mL/g and time of 32.32 hrs. The maximum collagen yield of 19.27 ± 0.05 mg/g of fish skin was achieved under the optimal conditions. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) and contour plots exhibited a significant interaction of all the selected variables over collagen extraction process. SDS-PAGE (Sodium dodecyl sulfate- polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) analysis suggested that the extracted collagen contained three α-chains i.e. (α1)2, α2 (M.W. 118, 116 kDa) and one β chain (M.W. 200 kDa) which was similar to commercially available calf skin type I collagen. Ag NWs used in the wound dressing material act as an antibacterial agent and were synthesized using hydrothermal method by reducing silver nitrate (AgNO3) using fructose in the presence of poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that ultra-long, uniform and thin silver nanowires were obtained under optimized conditions; 0.02 M AgNO3, 0.016 g/mL of fructose, 0.16 g/mL of PVP at 160 °C within ii 22 hrs. The dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis revealed that the silver nanowires obtained had an average diameter of 77 nm possessing high level of crystallinity with face centered cubic (FCC) phase that was evident from the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns peaked at (111), (200), (220), (311) and (222) planes. A pH-sensitive hydrogel based wound dressing material i.e., PAsp/PVA/Collagen hydrogel loaded with Ag NWs was synthesized and optimized by altering the components namely concentration of PAsp (50mg-200 mg), PVA (4%-10%), collagen (0.5 mg/mL-3 mg/mL), Ag NWs (2.5 mg, 5 mg and 10 mg), ammonium persulfate (APS) (75 mg-150 mg) and ethylene glycol di- methacrylate (EGDMA) (0.25 mM-1 mM) based on the properties like swelling characteristics, physical strength and stability of the hydrogel. A maximum swelling ratio of 1511% have been achieved at the optimised condition in the presence of collagen at pH 10 whereas 1286% was achieved in the absence of collagen. However, the swelling ratio of PAsp/PVA/Collagen hydrogel (1511%) slightly decreased with the addition of Ag NWs and achieved swelling ratio of 1405% at pH 10 when hydrogel loaded with 5 mg Ag NWs. The prepared dressing material had good pH-sensitivity to alkaline environment and exhibited maximum swelling at pH 10 and minimum at pH 3. Through this mechanism, developed wound dressing material can maintain pH by removing excess exudate on wound bed and can retain required moist environment for better healing process. Antibacterial activity of hydrogel loaded with 5 mg Ag NWs exhibited 99.92% reduction in viable E. coli colonies. The hydrogel was assessed for its cytotoxicity on L929 cells by Sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay and it was revealed that hydrogel had not shown any toxicity and promoted cell proliferation. In-vivo wound healing studies showed that PAsp/PVA/Collagen impregnated with 5 mg Ag NWs improves the healing process and exhibited re-epithelization within 12 days with no scar formation, which is also confirmed by assessing histological parameters. Histological evaluation revealed good dermal layer formation with a high healing score. Comprehensively, the results suggested that PAsp/PVA/Collagen hydrogel impregnated with 5 mg silver nanowires can be a novel wound dressing material for chronic wounds.
Hydroxypropyl-Β-Cyclodextrin Modified Nickel Ferrite Nanocomposites For Removal Of Pharmaceutical Pollutants
(National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, 2022) C K, Smitha; B, Raj Mohan
The growth of the pharmaceutical companies has been a boon to the mankind in myriad ways. However, the consequences due to the excess usage of these pharmaceutical compounds in our day-to-day life have resulted in irreplaceable damage to the ecosystem. Researchers have used nanocomposite-based systems for the removal of a wide range of pharmaceutical pollutants from the aqueous systems. Among them the magnetic based silica system has gained momentum due to its ease of synthesis and wide applicability. Nickel ferrite-based silica nanocomposites attached to cysteine and nickel ferrite-based silica nanocomposites attached to aminosilanes were both optimised for their size and morphology. Cysteine coated and amine coated nanocomposites revealed a particle size of 130-150 nm and 50- 100 nm. The physiochemical properties of the nanocomposites were evaluated using different characterization techniques such as TEM, FESEM, XRD, FTIR and TGA. The adsorption studies were performed on both the nanocomposites which revealed a higher adsorption potential of 97.01%, 94.12% and 70.13% for IBF, ACE and STR respectively for aminosilane coated nanocomposite. The nanocomposites revealed a good removal efficiency of ~90% up to 4 cycles with reduction in removal efficiency during the 5th cycle. Hence, aminosilane coated nanocomposites were further grafted with hydroxypropyl- -cyclodextrin to determine the removal efficiency post grafting. The hydroxypropyl- -cyclodextrin grafted nanocomposites (14 mg /L) revealed a very good removal efficiency of 98.01 %, 98.89 %, 98.3 % for IBF, ACE and STR respectively. The nanocomposites also showed good reusability of ~92% for up to 5 cycles thus exhibiting higher pollutant removal in comparison to aminosilane coated nickel ferrite-based silica nanocomposites. The adsorption kinetics for the adsorption seemed to follow pseudo second order reaction kinetics. Also, the Langmuir model of adsorption seemed to fit well with the experimental data confirmation monolayer adsorption process.
Microwave assisted Pyrolysis of Food waste to Biochar and Biofuels
(National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, 2020) Kadlimatti, Huchappa; B, Raj Mohan; M. B., Saidutta
Mangalore is one of the fast growing cities of India and situated on the west coast of the Indian peninsula covering an area of 132.45 sq-km. The city is generating approximately around 312 tons of MSW per day of which 40% is the food waste (125 tons per day). At present this MSW is land filled leading to serious environmental and health problems. The given research thesis aims to (i) quantify and characterize the food waste generated in commercial and residential complexes of Mangalore city, (ii) pyrolysis of food waste with the assistance of microwave irradiation, optimization of the process parameters for better yields and (iii) characterization of the pyrolysis products using ASTM standard methods. Preliminary pyrolysis experiments were carried out to decide about the operating ranges for the pyrolysis temperature, residence time and nitrogen flow rate. Based on the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and preliminary pyrolysis experiments, the operating ranges for the time, nitrogen flow rate and temperature to carry out pyrolysis experiments were 25 to 35 min., 40 to 60 mL min-1 and 350 to 450 ºC respectively to design the experiments by response surface methodology (RSM). Pyrolysis yields of 30. 24 wt. % (bio-oil), 60.03 wt. % (biochar) and 9.73 wt. % (biogas) were obtained under the optimum pyrolysis conditions of 400 ºC temperature, 30 min. residence time and nitrogen flow rate of 50 mL min-1 respectively. The actual values of the operating parameters namely temperature, time and nitrogen flow rate and the responses for twenty experiments were used for the prediction of bio-oil, biochar and fixed carbon models. The regression models with 95% confidence level resulted in the high value of R2 = 95.4% with R2 adjusted = 91.2% indicated a very good or excellent fit of the data to the bio-oil model, high value of R2 = 92.9% with R2 adjusted = 86.4% indicated a very good or excellent fit of the data to the biochar model and high value of R2 = 90.3% with R2 adjusted = 81.60% indicated a very good or excellent fit of the data to the fixed carbon content model respectively. Bio-oil model was analyzed statistically by using experimental data and analysis of variance (ANNOVA). The linear terms suchvii as temperature, time and nitrogen flow rate were having the positive effect to increase the bio-oil yield when these variables are increased, whereas, square terms were having negative effect and decreased the bio-oil yield. The predicted value of the bio-oil yield was 0.02 wt. % less than the experimental value. Main functional groups as detected by the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis are alcohols, alkenes, aromatic compounds, primary and secondary amines, carboxylic acid, esters and phenols. GC-MS analysis was carried out to find the major compounds present in the bio-oil. GC-MS analysis identified 11 major compounds out of more than 500 compounds those were present in the bio-oil. Compounds such as oxygenated and non-oxygenated compounds, nitrogenated compounds and other compounds such as phosphine, methyl-, propane, 2- fluoro-, (2-hydroxyethyl) trimethylsilyl methyl sulfide, and 1,3-bis(2-hydroxymethyl) urea were identified by the GC-MS analysis. Though the heating value of the bio-oil was 23.94 MJ kg-1 it cannot be used as a bio-fuel, as it contains more water as well as nitrogenated compounds. However, bio-oil obtained can be upgraded and blended with diesel to use as a fuel through further investigation. Biochar and fixed carbon content model were analyzed statistically by using experimental data and ANNOVA. Linear and square terms were significant to effect biochar production followed by the fixed carbon content whereas the interaction terms were less significant parameters. The predicted value of the biochar was 0.05 wt. % less than experimental value, whereas, the fixed carbon content was 0.03 wt. % less than the experimental value. Biochar obtained under the minimum pyrolysis conditions of 400 ºC temperature, 30 min time and 50 mL min-1 of nitrogen flow rate at a power level of 450 W was used for characterization. Higher heating value (HHV) of the biochar was 33.35 MJ kg-1. HHV as calculated by the bomb calorimeter (33.35 MJkg-1) was higher than that of the Dulong formula (27.79 MJkg-1) value as the latter did not include the dissociation effects. HHV of the biochar was more than that of the FWS due to reduction of some higher heating value hydrocarbons.
Nickel Ferrite Nanocomposite for the Removal of Nsaids, Antibiotics and Caffeine
(National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, 2024) Indumathi, I.; B, Raj Mohan
The earth's surface is made up of 97% salty seawater and the rest is freshwater, which is the only resource for drinking, domestic and industrial use. These water sources are constantly contaminated with organic and inorganic wastes, pathogens, and pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCP) (PPCP). The release of PPCP products, particularly as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), caffeine and antibiotics is present in municipal sewage influent and effluent at low concentrations ranging from a few ng/L to mg/L. It is also transported to surface water via either a direct or indirect pathway, which is extremely harmful to aquatic habitats and has an impact on the population of naturally occurring bacteria. On the nanotechnological adsorbent basis, adsorption is now growing among wastewater remediation techniques, which can effectively remove existing PPCP in water bodies even at low concentrations. Nickel ferrite NiFe2O4 (NFO) has been extensively used because of its vast surface-active sites, specific surface area, exceptional magnetic and chemical characteristics and alterable shape and size with which they can be modified or functionalized. In recent years, the functionalization of NFO nanoparticles with biomolecules such as β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and amino acid has improved the possibility of adsorption of targeted pollutants. β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) with six glucose subunits has a significant feature of forming solid inclusion complexes with a wide variety of guest molecules within the hydrophobic cavity of the host cyclodextrin. The functionalization of amino acids with at least one amino group (-NH2) and one carboxyl group (-COOH) could improve the stability of nickel ferrite as well as its ability to absorb the targeted contaminants by providing strong chelating sites. Thus, a laboratory scale experiment was conducted to study the physical, chemical, thermal and magnetic properties of NFO@SiO2@β-CD, L-Leucine functionalized NFO nanocomposite (NFO@L) as an adsorbent and NFO as a catalyst was used in the activation of PMS for the degradation process. The NFO@SiO2@β-CD was used to study the feasibility of the removal of Ketoprofen (KF) and Diclofenac (DCF). The co-precipitation approach was utilised to synthesize nickel ferrite (NFO) nanoparticles, which were then functionalized with TEOS to form NFO@SiO2; β-cyclodextrin was then functionalized using 3-Glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS) as an interface to form NFO@SiO2@β-CD. FTIR, XRD, FE-SEM, EDX, TGA/DTG, VSM, BET, zeta potential and particle size analysis were then used to characterise the nanocomposites. The average diameter of NFO@SiO2@β-CD was determined to be 109.1 nm, with superparamagnetic behaviour, a mesoporous surface and a specific surface of 20.78 m2/g. The functionalized NFO@SiO2@β-CD nanocomposite removed 94% of diclofenac in 5 min and 80% of ketoprofen in 360 min with the adsorption capacities of 8.46 and 0.54 mg/g, respectively. The obtained experimental datum for both the pollutants was fitted in kinetic and isotherm models, with the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and Freundlich adsorption isotherm showing the best fit with the highest regression of R2 = 0.99. The nanocomposite was regenerated using 0.1 M NaOH and recycled for about four consecutive cycles in which the reduction in the removal efficiency of ketoprofen and diclofenac was observed to be 51.36% and 64%, respectively. The removal of ciprofloxacin (CIP) and lomefloxacin hydrochloride (LFH) in the aqueous phase was investigated using a hydrothermally synthesized L-Leucine functionalized nickel ferrite nanocomposite (NFO@L). Various analytical techniques were used to analyze L-Leucine functionalized nickel ferrite, and the nanocomposite’s average particle diameter was determined to be between 11 and 15 nm. The maximal measured zeta potential was - 21.5 mV. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), ninhydrin assay and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the attachment of L-Leucine onto nickel ferrite. The nanocomposite’s surface-to-volume ratio was calculated to be 92.916 m2/g. The S-shaped curve from the vibrating sample magnetometer analysis reflected the superparamagnetic behaviour of the nanocomposite with a saturation magnetization of 0.665 emu/g. Various parametric experiments were conducted, in which 93.549% ciprofloxacin was removed in 120 min at 303 K, pH 8 and with a NFO@L dosage of 100 mg in 100 mL whereas 75.192% lomefloxacin hydrochloride was removed in 140 min at 333 K, pH 9 and with a NFO@L dosage of 70 mg in 100 mL. The plot of experimental datum in kinetic and isotherm studies fitted well with the Pseudo second order kinetic model and Langmuir isotherm. The ICP – OES analysis revealed that the leaching of iron ions was within the permissible limits in the final analyte. The recycle and regeneration studies showed good stability with a small reduction after four cycle runs. A laboratory batch study on the degradation of Lomefloxacin hydrochloride (LFH), Caffeine (CAF) and LC (CAF and LFH mixed solution) was carried out by stimulating potassium peroxymonosulfate (PMS) using NFO. The NFO nanoparticles were synthesized through a co-precipitation method and characterized using FTIR, XRD, FESEM/EDX, TGA/DTA/DTG, BET, AFM, VSM, Zeta potential, and particle size distribution from FESEM (using ImageJ software). The NFO nanoparticles' specific surface area was estimated to be 112.02 m2/g, and the magnetic properties of the NFO nanoparticles were investigated using VSM analysis. The parametric study included the study on the effect of bare NFO, PMS without catalyst, pH, catalyst dosage, PMS variation with optimized catalyst, initial concentration of LFH and CAF, and reaction time, with nearly 98.61 % LFH was degraded in 220 min, 100 % CAF was degraded in 80 min, 78.07 % LC was degraded in 40 min. The degraded compounds m/z of LFH, CAF and LC were identified using LC-MS. The regeneration and recycling of NFO nanoparticles were investigated to determine the stability of the NFO nanoparticles in the degradation of LFH and CAF in which the degradation efficiency decreased to 90.68 % and 64.1 % respectively upon the third wash with distilled water. As a result, the NiFe2O4/PMS system showed improved degradation even after two recycle runs. Based on these findings, the results suggested that the NFO@SiO2@β-CD nanocomposite, Leucine functionalized nickel ferrite nanocomposite and Nickel ferrite (NFO) could be a potent adsorbent and catalyst to target specific low-concentrated pharmaceutical pollutants, making it an efficient and economical system even for multi-pharmaceutical pollutants.